Waterloo campaign
The Waterloo campaign began when Emperor Napoleon I invaded Belgium with his army of the North to defeat the Anglo-Allied forces of the Duke of Wellington and the Prussian army under Blucher. Napoleon hoped that a great victory might restore his military reputation, whilst confirming his political status within France. The French Emperor also believed that a swift success might deter the allies from marching upon France or even topple the coalition against him. With four great battles spread over as many days, Quatre Bras, Ligny, Wavre and, of course, Waterloo, Napoleon's dream of restoring his fortunes was shattered when the campaign reached its dramatic climax at the Battle of Waterloo on the 18th June 1815. Resulting from the unwavering cooperation of Wellington and Blucher, Napoleon suffered a defeat so crushing that his credibility was irretrievably lost, for upon returning to Paris he was forced to abdicate a second time. The political and military career of arguably history's greatest soldier was over and with it his dreams of Empire. Only the humiliation and suffering of his final years in exile on Saint Helena beckoned, but even then he was not idle, for with the time that was left to him, he laboured to construct the Napoleonic Legend which still blazes bright today. Prelude Napoleon's audacious march upon Paris in the spring of 1815 to regain his imperial crown and to restore his Empire, must surely rank as one of the boldest ventures ever undertook by a single man, even for a man of his towering stature. It's stunning success crowned himwith fresh glory and he later recalled his triumphant entry into Paris as the happiest day of his life as he was swept up in triumph and borne up into the grandeur of the Tuilleries amid the frenzied adulation of the people. The Hundred days had begun. To the Allies meeting at the Congress of Vienna, seeking to turn back the clock and redress the map of Europe after two decades of incessant war, Napoleon's return was greeted with rather less enthusiasm and despite their bickering over whom should receive what, which threatened to fracture their tenuous alliance, they placed aside their differences to declare war on their common enemy; Napoleon Bonaparte. Not France, but one man. By the formation of the Seventh Coalition which formally came into being just five days after Napoleon's return to power , they pledged to refrain from signing any individual peace agreements with the usurper and to remain in the field until he was utterly and finally defeated, with each agreeing to provide 200,000 men. Upon learning of Napoleon's return, Joachim Murat, King of Naples rushed off to offer his services to his former master. In 1814, Murat had betrayed Napoleon by siding with the Allies in the hopes of securing his kingdom as the French Empire collapsed. Subsequently, after Napoleon's defeat the treacherous Murat had become only too aware that his tenure of Naples was temporary; that the Allies intended at some point to usurp his kingdom, hence his return to Napoleon, knowing he must stand or fall with his former master. Once he had regained his throne, Napoleon quickly found that circumstances within France had changed. He was no longer the spoiled child of victory, but one man amongst many. He sensed a new mood sweeping France. The optimstic enthusiasm of the glory years of the Empire had vanished, to be replaced by a yearning desire for peace, for the recent horror of war was still fresh in the minds of many after the collapse and defeat of France in the spring of 1814.Napoleon needed peace too, in order to restore confidence to the French people, but also to secure himself as ruler of France.As a realist, Napoleon must have known that the chances of securing peace were fragile; that the Allies would never permit him to rule within France's borders. But the effort had to be made anyway on behalf of the French people and for himself, for he desired to be seen as the victim of the Allies agressive intentions. Without much optimism and hoping against hope that the peace could be maintained, Napoleon made overtures to the major powers of Britain, Austria, Russia and Prussia by trying to reassure them of his his peacefull intentions. But his overtures were rejected. The cold stance of the Allies was perfectly clear. War was inevitable and Napoleon felt morally justified in preparing for a new war. Only by war could he restore his fortunes and secure his future as leader of the French nation. Any hopes that Napoleon's overtures might be received favourably were dashed by the rash actions of his brother-in-law Joachim Murat, who in an attempt to curry favour with his former master, but without consideration of his actions, declared war on Austria and promptly advanced on Rome with 40,000 men and 56 guns. At first, Murat's expedition to liberate Italy met with success as the Pope fled to Genoa and his troops occupied Florence, but Austrian forces were mobilising and Murat was decisively defeated at the Battle of Tolentino on May 2nd. Fleeing to France, Murat's repeated offer of his sabre to his brother-in-law met with an icy silence for Napoleon was incensed at Murat's rash stupidity which he saw as squandering his peace overtures by pre-empting a new war. Murat kicked his heels around Lyon's unemployed, but his services at Waterloo as a unsurpassed leader of cavalry would be sorely missed. Napoleon at once employed his formidable energies and organisational skills into mobilising for a war of survival as he saw it, and by June the impossible had been achieved with the help of Marshal Davout, whom he had appointed minister of war and military governor of Paris. Davout, the victor of Auerstadt in 1806, was a warrior rather than an administative clerk; indeed one of his finest fighting generals, and he made it known that he would prefer a field command. Unrelenting to Davout's wishes Napoleon needed someone to instill 'backbone' into Paris if he were obliged to leave the capital and take to the field once again against his enemies. Ruthlessly efficient, loyal to the extreme and ebued with an iron will in seeing a job finished, Davout was that man. Only Davout could be entrusted to safeguard the capital in his absence. The strategic concept of the Allies called for a massive demonstation of their power along the whole of the French eastern frontier. Two major offensives were planned under the supervision of Prince Schwarzenberg, aimed at Paris over the Rhine and the Meuse as well as a smaller supporting offensive aimed at Lyons. This could take several more months of course to build up the concentration of troops required. Only in Belgium under the Duke of Wellington and Field Marshal Blucher were the Allied armies already rapidly gathering in strength. In early May, Blucher ever eager to come to grips with the French pressed for an advance into France to begin in June, but Wellington being more cautious, persuaded his impetuous ally to await the arrival of the Austrians and Prussians first, though both agreed that in the event of an attack by Napoleon, they would draw in their forces to unite as one entity, Blucher concentrating his army at Sombreffe, Whilst Wellington would concentrate his own forces towards him. To meet the hostile intentions of the Allies, Napoleon had managed to assemble 232,000 men at arms, ressurecting in the process of filling the ranks of his newly reformed Grande Armee such notable units as the elite Old Guard which would form the backbone of the army. As in 1805, Napoleon needed a great victory that would ensure his survival. Nothing less than a stunning success could restore his military reputation, his fortunes and fill the nations empty treasury. Two choices were thus open to Napoleon. He could either attack the Allies before they had a chance to organise against him or else he could sit back to wait for the Allies to come to him and defend against their encroaching forces in the style of the 1814 campaign. Whilst the latter plan was attractive for it might enable him to build up and train his forces, he was also aware that this strategy had failed the previous year. Much more attractive to Napoleon was the first plan, and he intended to seize thew initiative first by assuming the offensive before the Allies could possibly have time to bring their superior forces to bear against him. Since Wellington, commanding the Anglo-Dutch army which he estimated at being some 105,000 strong and Blucher's Prussian army which he likewise estimated having in excess of 120,000 men were the nearest within striking range deployed in Belgium, Napoleon planned that this was where his axe would fall first. But, in order to strike at the two allied armies, Napoleon would have to split his total available manpower of 232,000 men in order to leave sizeable fighting units upon the frontiers to pin and to hold the encroaching Austrians and Russians whilst he dealt with both Wellington and Blucher. Of his 232,000 men, only 128,000 men would be available to launch his campaign in the north. Thus, Napoleon would be at a numerical disadvantage from the start. To fight a united Anglo-Dutch and Prussian army would be to court disaster therefore, but Napoleon had a concept called the 'Strategy of the Central position' which could offset this. It was easier to attempt than to achieve and a lot would rely on speed and surprise , but Napoleon was confident he could pull it off. The strategy entailed splitting the two armies apart by slicing between them. Moving against one army with his main strength to defeat them, Napoleon would detach a smaller, token force to pin and hold the other force to prevent it from intervening. With his primary foe defeated and in retreat, Napoleon would then march his main body to rejoin his detached force and then force the secondary enemy army to a battle of annihilation. Napoleon anticipated a short and sharp victorious campaign in which he would defeat and throw back the two Allied armies and subsequently occupy Brussels, after which he was confident the Belgians would rise to declare for him. With the defeat of their most celebrated general and the destruction of their army, the English government that was hostile to him might well collapse like a pack of cards, to be replaced by a party more sympathetic towards him. With the Prussians likewise reeling back upon their lines of communications via Liege to the Rhine, perhaps in utter defeat, only the Austrians and the Russians would be left to deal with. Maybe a great victory, another Austerlitz in Belgium would prove enough to give the Allies food for thought. With England defeated was not inconcievable that the union binding them might break as each power broke away to pursue their own interests. In the event that the Russians and Austrians still showed the inclination to fight as they fell upon General Rapp and Marshal Suchet guarding the Eastern frontier, Napoleon considered he would be well placed in Belgium to fall southwards upon their flanks and rear, cutting their supply lines from their bases. In the unlikely event that his lightning strike against Belgium failed, Napoleon reasoned that he could still fall back on his secondary strategy to redeploy his forces before Paris and Lyons to fight a repetition of the 1814 campaign with a still reasonable chance of success. Mindful of the betrayal and intrique that had enabled the swift capitualtion of Paris to the Allies the year before, Napoleon was confident that the loyal and dependable Davout could safeguard the city against any possible repeat of the previous years treachery. Secure in the knowledge that his capital was in capable hands, Napoleon departed Paris in the early hours of the 12th of June to rejoin his army at Beaumont near the Belgium border where it was poised to strike at the Anglo-Dutch and Prussian armies. The Commanders and their Armies Here is a quick overview of the involved parties. The Emperor Napoleon Napoleon in 1815 was still the greatest military commander in Europe, his reputation easily eclipsing that of his two opponents despite his recent fall from grace. For many years, Napoleon had adhered to a style of warfare that was truly 'Blitzkreig' in it's nature. Speed was an essential ingredient of his formula as well as concentration and overwhelming force. Typically, he would move his legions with lightening speed to close on the enemy who would be thrown of balance by the rapidity of his advance. Having gained the initiative before the enemy could react, Napoleon would then seek to deliver the 'coup d' grace' by fighting the decisive battle that would end the war. With an insight to strategy on the grand scale that was breathtaking and an instinctive intuition for war that was probably unsurpassed, Napoleon held to this successful formula which brought him victory after victory. But familarity breeds contempt, and his enemies eventually learnt from their mistakes to develop counter measures to his varilous ploys and tactics. It is noteworthy that after 1809, although he still won the overwhelming majority of the battle he fought, he still nonetheless failed to win a campaign outright as his style of warefare was diluted by the enlightenment of his opponents. In sum, he was eventually brought down not by his own failing powers, but by the steady evolution of his opponents as his own stagnated. On St-Helena Napoleon boasted "I have fought over sixty battles and I learnt nothing that I did not know in the beginning." ''It was an awful admission to make, which showed within a brief moment one of the key reasons for his defeat. Another factor which was to dilute Napoleon's generalship at Waterloo and to ultimately affect the outcome of the campaign was the fact that Napoleon in 1815 was no longer the all dynamic and decisive leader he had once been. The struggles of the past two years seemed to weigh heavily upon him. After so many reverses since the Retreat from Russia, his old unwavering confidence in himself appeared shaken and he now experienced periods of self doubt which he tried to mask behind bold and authorative outbursts. "I hardly recognise the Emperor I used to know" lamented Lazare Carnot, ''"he now talks more instead of acting." Much controversy also rages as to the state of his health during the Hundred Days and the Waterloo Campaign. In his book, One Hundred Days - Napoleon's Road to Waterloo, Alan Schom writes that'' "Ever since his attempted suicide attempt the year before, a handkerchief was constantly ready to control the flow of saliva seeping from the corner of his mouth. His breathing was hard and irregular and often interrupted by a cough." This description of Napoleon in 1815 is also echoed in Napoleon his Wives and Women, by Christopher Hibbert. Ceratinly his legendary stamina seemed to desert Napoleon on several critical occasions during the Waterloo Campaign, but this may have simply been the result of nervous and physical exhaustion brought about by the tremendous pressures upon his shoulders, for since his return to France he had with typical heroic resolve and energy, subjected himself to a gruelling eighteeen hour a day work schedule. Snatching a few hours sleep when he could, he wrestled almost single handedly with the titanic task of restructuring the nations finances, consolidating his power, and rallying the people to his banner to meet the hostile intentions of the Allies. When his doctor became alarmed at his workload and urged him to rest, he snapped back, "I have not got the time."'' At forty six years of age therefore, Napoleon still displayed a level of activity which would have daunted a much younger man and this alone confuses the issue of his general health. And yet, there is no doubt that Napoleon was unwell during the night of the 16th/17th after the battle of Ligny from an acute attack of piles which left him in great pain and distress which might account in part for his lethargic, withdrawn and undecive showing at Waterloo on the 18th. The Duke of Wellington If Napoleon enjoyed the greater reputation of military prowess, then Arthur Wellesley, the 1st Duke of Wellington enjoyed the distinction in 1815 of never having lost a battle. He perhaps lacked Napoleon's genius for strategy on a grand scale which had enabled the French Emperor to the pinnacle of military prowess, but in tactical affairs he was a master of his trade who was fully his opponents equal. In the sphere of minor tactics, ie the personal handling of bodies of troops down to a brigade level on the battlefield, he was his Napoleon's better since upon becoming Emperor in 1804, Napoleon had increasingly been unable to devote himself to the level of micro-management that Wellington could enjoy, becoming increasingly reliant to delegate battlefield responsibilities to his subordinates, and In some respects, the Emperor Napoleon was the death of General Bonaparte. Born in 1769, the same year as Napoleon, Wellington had learned many valuable lessons about how to wage war in India in the years 1797-1805. These crucial years honing his military skills stood him in good stead, providing a foundation to take on the French conquerors of Europe in the Spanish Penninsula where he proved once and for all to an astounded Europe that the French were not invincible after all, by taking on and beating every French Marshal sent against him, which in turn emboldened Napoleon's enemies to continue the fight. Soon The French themseves had begun to develop a healthy respect for him, half admiringly calling him "Monsieur Villainton," ''whilst to his own troops he was known as ''"Old Hookey" ''in reference to his hooked nose, or the "Bugger that beats the French." To his own officers he was simply known as ''"The Peer." In many ways Napoleon and Wellington were the antithesis of one another. Napoleon was a master of strategy and of the offensive art of war. He led by his sheer charisma which spoke to the soul to electrify the fighting men. Wellington was a master of tactics and of the defensive battle, although he could fight a superb offensive battle if he so wished. His style of warfare was characterised by a careful, methodical approach as opposed to Napoleon's intuitive grasp of warefare which amounted to genius. Being aristocratic in nature, he was stern and aloof, critical of his own officers and allies to the point of rudeness, whilst he made no secret of his disdain of the rank of file, whom he still nonetheless knew he could rely on to fight any foe. Wellington's health in 1815 is on more solid ground than his opponent. A keen horseman, he would ride hard in all weathers which helped endow him with an hardy constitution. Her enjoyed excellent health and the Waterloo campaign would demonstrate that that he was a leader who had few qualms about exposing himself to danger. Wherever a crisis developed, Wellington would be in the thick of it, personaly leading and inspiring his men by his own cool example. Field Marshal Blucher The last of the trio of great generals participating in the Waterloo Campaign was the fiery seventy two year old Gebhard Blucher. Fiercely Patriotic, rough and blunt mannered, he still possessed a certain streak of the hussar which compelled him to charge straight into the thick of action somewhat impetuously, which had sometimes landed himself and his army in a perilous situation as had happened at the Battle of Vauchamps in 1814. Yet, spurred on by his hatred of Napoleon and the French, he had done as much as anybody and more than most to ensure Napoleon's defeat the previous year by instilling courage into his wavering Allies to continue the fight. Blucher, like Napoleon, enjoyed the unswerving adoration of the soldiers who marched beneath him. Like the French Emperor, he was a soldier at heart with a soldiers appetites and sensiblities who knew how to speak their language. With affection, and in reference to his habit of being ready to advance once more after a defeat, he was known to his soldiers as "Old Forwards." He may not have had the strategic grasp of Napoleon, nor the tactical brilliance of Wellington, but he was endowed with common sense and unsurpassed courage. Perhaps even more so, Loyalty and a sense of honour were his greatest strengths and these qualities alone would stand the Allies in good stead during the campaign, for without Blucher, Wellington could never have hoped to stand alone and triumph at Waterloo. Unlike Napoleon and Wellington, he recognised the limits of his intellect and was happy to share the reins of his leadership with his extremely able Chief of Staff, Gneisenau who in some respects at least, was in a sense the commander in chief of the Prussian army in 1815, who provided Blucher with strategic and tactical guidance. Gneisenau was the brain, but Blucher was the symbol and figurehead of the Prussian army. He was the engine and mainspring which drove and kept the Prussian army focused on it's goal. Together, the combination of Blucher and Gneisenau was a truly formidable partnership. His health in 1815 was open to question for he was after all, seventy two. In the 1814 Campaign in France , serious illness had laid him low at a crucial point at the Battle of Laon, which had allowed Napoleon to escape to fight another day. But, in 1815 he showed remarkable powers of vitality and recovery for a man of his years. The French Army Numbering 128,000 men and 366 artillery pieces, The 'Armee du Nord' as he had designated it for his forthcoming campaign, was quite possibly one of the most formidable he had ever commanded; the backbone of the army composed as it was of a large percentage of of seasoned veterans and soldiers whom had fought in at least one previous campaign. Many of the raw conscripts of 1814 were now considered old soldiers and suffering from their wounded and battered pride, many had joined up volunarily, eager to rejoin the Imperial eagles and march beneath the Emperor's banner once to avenge the indignities and humiliations of their defeat in 1813/14. Morale was superb and expectations were high. All in all it was a truly formidable and nationalistic army composed almost exclusively of Frenchmen; an army of which Napoleon could be proud. And yet, despite it's impressive and imposing potential, it's fatal flaw lie beneath the surface for it was irredeemably divided in it's unity. Mistrust and a fear of treachery stalked its ranks, for the die-hard Bonapartists viewed with scorn and suspicion those who had so eagerly accepted and served the Bourbon monarchy.This fear of betrayal would ultimately contribute to the army's undoing at the final hour at Waterloo. The army itself was divided into five army corps led respectively by General's D'Erlon, Reille, Vandamme, Gerard and Lobau. It was supported by four reserve corps of cavalry, led by General's Pajol, Exelmans, Kellerman and Milhaud. Each of the five army corps was in effect a miniature army in themselves, comprised of infantry, cavalry and artillery. Napoleon believed that a solitary corps finding itself faced by the enemy had the means to fight independantly, at least until neighbouring corps could arrive and reinforce it. In addition, the army comprised of a 25,000 strong reserve of the elite Imperial Guard which fell under Napoleon's personal command. This formidable reserve was also comprised of all arms and the infantry was divided into the Old, Middle and Young Guard. "Dont use the Marshals," an old soldier wrote to Napoleon upon his return. To be sure, after a decade of war, the Marshalate which was created in 1804 was largely 'washed out.' Many were dead, too old or just simply lacked the incentive after being heaped with honours and titles as well as vast estates to now risk their lives in a new and uncertain war. Either they remained loyal to Louis XVIII or else they retired to their estates in neutrality. In either case, they were simply struck off the list of Marshals. Napoleon was far sighted enough to see the merits of raising junior officers up through the ranks who were still hungry to succeed, but for reasons of prestiege and in view of his still shaky throne, Napoleon still needed the support of the big names that were still willing to offer their services to him. Marshal Davout and Marshal Suchet, two of Napoleon's most gifted commanders who did return to him were not destined to take to the field in Napoleon's last campaign. In Napoleon's absence in Belgium, the utterly loyal Davout was deemed indispensable by the Emperor in safeguarding Paris against a repeat of the intrique and betrayal which had helped defeat Napoleon the previous spring. Likewise, Suchet who had enjoyed the greatest successes in the Pennisula War, was also kept far away, being given independant command of the 'Armee d' Alpes' comprising of 23,500 men in south-eastern France where he was to link up with Marshal Brune's pathetic skeleton force of 5,500 men and attempt to stem the tide of an anticipated onslaught by 70,000 Austrian and Italian troops. The military talents of Davout and Suchet would be sorely missed during the Waterloo Campaign, but perhaps Napoleon deliberately left them behind in order to throw his own anticipated success into a sharper focus, for in 1815, as already mentioned, Napoleon desperately needed a stunning success on his own merit in order to both restore his damaged military reputation and to cow the hostile crowned heads of Europe.Certainly it seemed as if Napoleon fielded a second rate team, at least in the higher echelons of command and this would seem to support this view, although it could also be said that Napoleon may have took both Marshal Soult as his Chief of Staff and Marshal Ney to command his left wing along with him to enable him to keep a watchful eye on them. Both men had been proven to be individuals of no fixed loyalties, happily swapping sides when and if opportunities favoured them. Perhaps Napoleon's biggest loss for the campaign in 1815 was the absence of Marshal Berthier as his Chief of Staff. All through the glory years of the Empire, Berthier had superbly translated Napoleon's intentions and plans to the various army corps, contributing to the stunning successes of the Grande Armee. Berthier's replacement, Marshal Soult was no substitute, having had little or no administrative experience and the campaign would be hindered by his vague and contradictive orders which would be misplaced, arrive late or not at all. Indeed, as soon as the campaign opened it would almost be derailed by his shoddy staffwork. Soult was an outstanding field commander and given that he had personaly fought Wellington in the Spanish Penninsula and knew his likely tricks and stratagems, would have been an ideal choice for command of the left wing, but that went to Ney... Marshal Ney was invited at the last moment to be "present at the first battles" as Napoleon rode off to war. Ney would arrive at the front after the campaign had already got underway to be told little by Napoleon about the broad concept of campaign, except to be informed that he was being given command of the left wing. Ney rode off to take up his command very still much in the dark as to what Napoleon expected of him. While Ney was a courageous man, perhaps second to none, his ability to think along strategic lines in order to bring success was limited by his impulsive character. On form, Ney could be breathtaking, but by 1815 Ney's conduct on campaign was to wildly fluctuate, being interspersed with periods of impetuous activity and lethargy. The last of the key commanders was that of the newly appointed Marshal Grouchy. Being given his Marshal's baton on Napoleon's return to power, Grouchy was given command of the right wing. As a leader of cavalry, Grouchy was perhaps second only to Murat himself in expertise of handling mounted divisions, but he had never before tasted independant command of a mixed force of infantry, cavalry and artillery, and he would soon find himself out of his depth. To make matters worse he was placed in rank above two subordinates in the form of General's Vandamme and Gerard who resenting being placed under a man whom they considered inferior to their own suitabilility to command, would only serve him with scornful reluctance. Napoleon had achieved wonders to mobilise and re-equip the French army at such short notice, but in order to do so the industries of France had been strained to the limit and as a result, not all of the army's equipment was of the highest quality. In particular, muskets were in short supply or in need of repair and once on campaign, Napoleon would order that all captured muskets to be hoarded carefully. Order of Battle: The French Army The Anglo-Allied Army On the 9th of May 1815, A far from pleased Wellington, described his command as "....An infamous army, very weak and ill equipped and a very inexperienced staff." ''To be sure, Wellington's army could not compete in terms of raw experience to Napoleon's army, and unlike the French army which was composed almost exclusively of French nationals, Wellington's was composed of many different nationalities of varying experience and dubious loyalties; a polyglot mix of British, German, Hanoverian, Brunswick, Nassau and Dutch-Belgian troops. On the other hand there was a much relieved enthusiasm in the ranks at Wellington's arrival in Brussels to asume command as Sgt Wheeler of the 51st regiment declared, "Glorious news! Nosey has got command! Won't we give them a drubbing now!"'' Eventually through dogged perserverance, Wellington was able to build up the strength and quality somewhat of this so called 'infamous army' up to 106,000 men and 216 guns. But still, only barely 32, 000 men, one third of his army could be called British. Therefore it was a British army only in the loosest term of the word. Even worse, many of the British troops were far from the veterans who had fought beside him in the Pennisula; many of those formidable warriors having been posted overseas to fight a useless war North America, and still in the process of returning. Despite being well trained, many had never even experienced active combat conditions. Even the highly regarded North British Dragoons, better known as the Scots Greys had seen little active service since 1801. The most worrying aspect of the army to Wellington was the non British contingents, for Wellington could not be sure if they would stand in the heat of combat or remain loyal at all. The Dutch-Belgians's remained the most suspect, for these had recently been comrades in arms with the French, before the creation of the Netherlands state which was in itself, resented. Wellington feared they might desert, or at best have little inclination to fight. But it was not all gloom and doom in the Anglo-Allied army that was being hastily assembled to meet the French threat. Sir Thomas Picton's 5th division contained a considerable proportion of Peninsula veterans, which included the ferocious 92nd Highlanders, dubbed the 'Ladies from Hell.' Picton's division therefore, as well as his British troops in general, could be relied upon to face any foe and Wellington also knew he could rely on the superb KGL, the Kings German Legion. These German troops were trained by Britain and were clothed in British style uniforms. They were also led by excellent officers. To stiffen morale in the ranks and minimize the risk of desertion of his weakest troops, Wellington was careful to intersperse his British troops amongst them. Upon arriving in Brussels in early April, Wellington had found the 18,000 strong Dutch-Belgian troops under the command of, the Prince of Orange.'' 'The Young Frog' as the prince was nicknamed, was the eldest son of the King of the Netherlands and his appointment by his father was political since although endowed with the reckless courage of youth, he had little experience of warfare, much less leading men. Furthermore, the Prince of Orange had an exaggerated view of his own abilities and fanced himself as a great leader, continually threatening to mount an offensive on his own initiative. It was recipe for disaster, and with tact, Wellington to everybody's relief managed to assume overall command of the whole army, the Prince being relegated to command of the 1st Corps where Wellington could hopefully keep an eye on him. Initially too, Wellington had been sent Sir Hudson Lowe as his Quartermaster-General, who would later win wider fame as Napoleon's gaoler on St-Helena. Wellington called him a ''"Damned old fool," and sent him away. He was replaced by Sir William de Lancey, a Peninsula veteran and Wellington was much pleased. Another appointment and one that might have not pleased Wellington, for he had eloped with his sister-in-law, was the arrival of the Earl of Uxbridge to command his cavalry. He was an excellent officer who had distinquished himself in the Pennisula and Wellington was satified with his appointment. Wellington also received Lord 'Daddy' Hill, one of his most trusted subordinates during his Penninsula days, and a man very popular amongst the troops. Then there was Sir Thomas Picton, another Peninsula veteran. Picton, was a rough spoken, ill mannered Welshman, but his courage was legendary and he was also popular with the troops. Although not liking him much, Wellington respected his worth and asked for his services. As well as these appointments, the Duke also received many other experienced officers who had fought iun the Peninsula and were both reliable and competent. They would fill key positions and provide inspiring and firm leadership to the troops in the uncertain days ahead. However, perhaps the most important man at the Anglo-Allied headquarters after The Duke of Wellington himself was the Prussian representative, Baron von Muffling. Muffling, an intelligent man of charm and tact in his role as Liason officer would communicate between the Anglo-Allied army and the Prussian Army to smooth out any misunderstandings between the two. Muffling as such, would do as much as anyone to assure victory by ensuring that the two armies would remain united in their goal by his patient and firm diplomacy between the two camps. The army was organised into two infantry corps led by the Prince of Orange and Lord Hill respectively, and a cavalry corps commanded by the Earl of Uxbridge. Wellington himself kept direct command of the army reserve. Echoing the hybrid nature of the army, much of the equipment was of a hodge-podge nature. The British aspect of the artillery for instance carried, 6 and 9 pounder guns as well as a smattering of 5/12 inch howitzers, but some of the other Allied units carried gunsn modelled along French lines. The infantry across the army carried a curious mix of British, Prussian as well as French made weapons which would complicate the logistical aspects of ammunition and supply. Order of Battle: The Anglo-Allied Army The Prussian Army The Prussian army of 1815, had already undergone great reforms, being restructured largely on French organisational and tactical lines after it's disasters in the Jena-Auerstadt campaign in 1806. Since then, it had rapidly proved itself as a force to be reckoned with, managing to inflict defeats upon the hitherto invincible French forces. 1813-14 had proved crucial tests to it's mettle and under the inspiring leadership of the indomitable Blucher, it was not found wanting as it had exacted it's revenge for past defeats which in turn restored both it's pride and morale.The spread of nationalistic patriotic pride had helped to create something like a true peoples army. Despite this, the enthusiasm of 1813-14 had largely evaporated, but the return of Napoleon had refired both the willingness of the army and the nation to fight and take the war to the French in 1815. Blucher summed up the feelings of many, declaring as he did at every opportunity, "This time, Bonaparte and the French are going to suffer for it!" It could not however compete with the French army in terms of raw expertise as it's ranks were filled with a very high proportion of raw conscripts and reservists. Up to half of the the foot army was of "Landwehr" status, ill equipped, short of rations, with even no shoes in some cases. In the cavalry regiments, only twenty two out of forty nine regiments were of regular status. Discipline in the ranks still left something to be desired, but there was no denying that despite the high proportion of conscripts and recalled reservists, the Prussian army enjoyed a high level of morale as well as a patriotic spirit of loyalty to it's king. The army of 128, 000 men and 312 guns under the overall command of Field Marshal Blucher was compised simply of just four corps commanded respectively by von Ziethen, Pirch I, Bulow and Thielmann. Unlike The French and Anglo-Allied armies, it did not retain a reserve. All of the Prussian resources were thus placed within the four corps which potentially could be a grave weakness. It was noticable too that the Prussian army of 1815 was short of heavy cavalry. Somewhat surprisingly, much of the Prussian equipment was of French origin.Much was also of British origin, vast amounts being supplied by Great Britain from 1813 onwards. Order of Battle: The Prussian Army Campaign June 15th - Napoleon Invades Belgium Napoleon's masterly concentration of his army on the Belgian frontier must rank as one of his greatest achievements. It had been brilliantly planned and even if Ziethen's 1st Prussian corps stationed around Charleroi did see a mass of camp fires burning over the border around Beaumont on the night of the 13th of June, they were not unduly disturbed and no significant precautions were taken. For the French army poised to invade Belgium, the omens of a stunning success seemed to beckon. On the eve of the Invasion, Napoleon's rousing proclamation, was read out to the troops..."Soldiers, today is the anniversary of Marengo and Friedland: Victory will be ours... For all true Frenchmen the time has come to conquer or perish..." At around 2:30 am on the 15th of June as Napoleon's troops readied themselves to cross the River Sambre, twelve regiments of cavalry under the command of Pajol moved off into the night to spearhead the invasion. Despite Napoleon's carefully laid plans, the advance which initially began in two columns did not quite get off to the successful start that was hoped for due to considerable confusion and delay. The right column of Vandamme's III Corps, Lobau's VI Corps, Gerard's IV Corps and the Guard, moving towards Charleroi was hampered when Vandamme's Corps which was meant to lead the way, was late taking to the road owing to a delayed order. Vandamme was aghast when Lobau's VI Corps marching up behind, crashed into his own stationary men causing a jam of tangled bodies between the two formations which took some time to distangle. To help ease the jam, Napoleon ordered Gerard's division to march to and cross the Sambre at Chatelet. As soon as General Gerard reached Chatelet, General Bourmont commanding his leading division promptly deserted to the Prussians to divulge to Ziethen, sensitive details of the deployment and strengths of Napoleon's army. The underlying fear of treason which lay just beneath the surface of Napoleon's otherwise formidable army appeared to be founded, and Bourmont's troops were dismayed and unsettled at this unexpected development. On the French left, Reille's II Corps and D'Erlon's I Corps moved towards Marchienne. Reille reached his objective on time, but the Prussians put up such a spirited defence, that Marchienne only fell to the French by midday. Owing to the confusion of the French thrust at Charleroi, Pajol's cavalry found themselves fighting without any infantry suppoert as the Prussian's fought to hold on to Charleroi, but at 11 am, Napoleon himself appeared at the head of the Guard in person and Ziethen decided to abandon the town and fall back in accordance with Blucher's wishes. Acting on General Ziethen's news of the French invasion, together with Bourmont's information, Blucher had already to concentrate his army at Sombreffe, as he had previously agreed with the Wellington as part of the Allied strategy to unite in the face of an attack. Wellington on the other hand, although being informed at around 3pm on the 15th that Ziethen had been attacked at Charleroi, was still not convinced that the main French attack was in fact through Charleroi. Somewhat obsessed with his lines of communications which ran through Ostend, Wellington feared that the main French attack would strike through the Mons - Brussels highway to cut himself and his army away from the channel ports and thus from home. Thus convincing himself that the French attack through Charleroi was a mere diversion after all, Wellington actually ordered his troops to concentrate west of Brussels to cover the Mons road, and away from the main French thrust in effect aiding the French and putting his ally in a dangerous position. Unwittingly, Blucher by endeavouring to order his I, II, III and IV Corps to concentrate at Sombreffe was without Wellington's cooperation, blundering his way into Napoleon's hands, for to concentrate his scattered forces peacemeal against the concentrated might of the 'Armee du' Nord,' was a dangerous manoevre indeed. At around 3:30 pm, Marshal Ney appeared at Charleroi to receive orders from Napoleon. After being told by the Emperor that he was glad to see him, Ney was appointed commander of the left wing consisting of D'Erlon's I Corps and Reille's II Corps together with Lefebvre-Desnouettes cavalry of the Guard. After ordering Ney to advance rapidly up the Charleroi- Brussels road, Napoleon next summoned Marshal Grouchy forward and subsequently gave him command of the right wing which consisted of Vandamme's III Corps and Gerard's IV corps also with supporting cavalry. Napoleon himself retained under his own command, Lobau's VI Corps together with the Imperial Guard which were to remain in a central position, able to be thrown to support either wing as circumstances might dictate. Initially, Marshal Ney made rapid progress on the left flank as his forces advanced up the Brussels road, sweeping the last obstinate defenders of the Prussian rearguard out of Gosselies by the late afternoon. Hereafter, the left wing faltered as the advance guard of Lefebvre-Desnouettes cavalry came under enemy infantry and cannon-fire as they probed towards Frasnes. In due course, a single infantry battalion arrived after a request for support, but perhaps something of Wellington's reputation preceded him, for gazing at the high standing corn in the summers evening, Ney became wary of pressing a further advance should the high stalks conceal enemy formations. It was now around 8:00 pm and despite there still being perhaps two hours of daylight left, the light was fading and the men were tired after covering twenty-two miles that day, so a cautious Ney justified his decision to call a halt for the day and make camp. Had Ney but known it, just 4,000 men and 8 guns opposed him, Hehimself had in the region of 50,000 men in the vicinity and could easily have smashed through this numerically inferior force to seize the strategically important crossroads of Quatre Bras which lie beyond. The crossroads would prove to be one of the key-points around which much of the fate of the whole campaign would be balanced Several miles to the east, the tardy advance of the right wing was characterised by the excessive caution which Marshal Grouchy displayed, which in his case, can be partly explained by the fact that he had been thrown into the 'deep end' so to speak, into a position of responsibility of which he had no prior experience. Napoleon, perhaps with some misgivings at Grouchy's appointment to Marshal, became so alarmed at the apparent lax progress of the right wing, that by the late afternoon he decided to intervene in person, joining Grouchy at Gilly to infuse the troops with a sense of urgency. With Napoleon at the helm, the effect was dramatic as French infantry battalions stormed the Prussian positions, obliging them to withdraw in some disorder, hounded by the French cavalry in pursuit which wrought havoc upon them. As the Prussian battalions continued to withdraw with difficulty to Fleurus, General Letort of the Guard Dragoons attempted to induce the 28th Fusiliers to surrender in face of their futile circumstances, but he was killed. Furious at their beloved leaders death, he was not long avenged when his comrades fell upon the hapless 28th in an unrestrained fury. The 28th lost over 600 men and 13 officers that day By last light, Grouchy's right wing had fought itself into the outskirts of Fleurus; infantry were called for to storm the town, but General Vandamme refused to lend his support to a superior whom he still held in contempt, so Grouchy was obliged to be content with the day's gains already made and to call a halt to the day's operations. With both wings of the army now halted for the night, Napoleon himself retired back to Charleroi where he had made his headquarters for the night. Despite the initial mishaps and delays that had characterized the first day of the campaign, he still had reason to feel pleased with thev day's results. Even if either of his two senior commanders had failed to carry vital objectives; Ney the crossroads at Quatre-Bras and Grouchy, Sombreffe, he had nonetheless gained a brilliant strategic initiatve by catching both of his opponents by surprise. Most importantly, his army was now wedged firmly in the central position between his two opponents. By the close of the 15th, Napoleon had his army in hand, his two opponents did not, and thus he had the fate of all three armies within his grasp. The Duchess of Richmond's Ball At around the same time as Napoleon had retired to Charleroi, the Duke of Wellington was preparing to attend the Duchess of Richmond's ball, a decision for which he was criticised thern and since. Yet, he had undoubtedly made the right decision in the circumstances, for by now Brussels was ablaze with rumours of the French attack.'' "In war morale is everything" Napoleon himself had said as much, and Wellington a great commander in his own right was equally fully aware of it's full significance. In the undercurrent of fear that swept Brussels in the wake of the news, he knew that it was vitally important to maintain an outward show of calm to help prevent a widespread panic. Prior to attending the ball, he had received a message indicating that Marshal Blucher was concentrating his army at Sombreffe and another despatch which informed him that all was quiet around the Mons sector. Besides being in receipt of knowledge that Ziethen had been attacked at Charleroi, Wellington considered it could be a feint attack by Napoleon, with the axe to fall elsewhere, he clearly decided to wait for more reliable news rather than to act rashly. Although he still feared that the main French attack would fall well to the west, he was still sufficiently impressed by the news because one hour later whilst at the ball he adjusted his afternoon plans to order a general concentration towards the inner flank and to order the reserve to ready themselves to march southwards to Mont-St-Jean. Any illusions he had of a major French attack to the west, was shattered at the height of the Duchess's ball in the early hours of the 16th, when Wellington at last learnt the full scale of the French attack through Charleroi, and of what had transpired just south of Quatre-Bras. In the face of the potentially fatal implications which the news brought, Wellington was a model of calm composure as he asked the Duke of Richmond for a map and was led discreetly to an empty room. Behind closed doors, Wellington at last allowed his emotions to show. Poring over the map he exclaimed in admiration for his opponent "By God! Napoleon has humbugged me, he has gained twenty-four hours march on me!" After being asked what he intended to do, Wellington replied ''" I have ordered the army to Quatre Bras, but I shall not stop him there, and if so, I must fight him here," ''as he passed his thumbnail over a place called Waterloo. At best, perhaps all he could do was fight a skillful delaying action to bring himself and Blucher some time to bring their forces together for Wellington was aware of the scattered nature of his forces and knew that in all likelihood, they would not bne able to reach the crossroads in time to prevent a breakthrough by the French. June 16th - The Battles of Quatre Bras and Ligny By 7:30am, The Duke and his staff were riding south, preceded by the army reserve which had left at dawn, to the crossroads at Quatre Bras. At Charleroi, Napoleon determined to fight a decisive battle against Wellington on the 16th, for he had learnt from Marshal Ney who had visited him in the small hours that Quatre Bras still remained in Allied hands. He planned to march his reserve to link up with Ney's forces and to smash through Wellington's defences and make a triumphant march upon the political prize of Brussels. His growing conviction was that Blucher would retire from his exposed position around Sombreffe, but to be certain that the Prussians could not interfere and lend their support to Wellington's Anglo-Allied army, he prepared to launch preliminary manoevres around Sombreffe and Gembloux as a precaution. After his expected victory over Wellington and the occupation of Brussels, he would then confront Blucher himself with the full might of his 'Armee du Nord.' Over at Quatre Bras itself, victory remained to be snatched with relative ease by Ney, but the Marshal who had once been dubbed the 'Bravest of the Brave,' by Napoleon for his unsurpassed courage during the Russian retreat, seemed to be no more, for he made no move to advance and secure the vital crossroad which was still lightly defended. With time very much of the essence in this campaign, every hour which he squandered away, gave Wellington's own forces time to reinforce the position. Perhaps in his defence, Ney was unsure as to what the Emperor expected him to do and perhaps believed he was to await the arrival of Napoleon in person along with Lobau and the Guard. Certainly a despatch he received at 10:am indicated this. On the other hand, the Ney of old would almost certainly have acted instead of procrastinating. As for Napoleon, by mid morning he was in the process of switching the emphasis of his attack from Ney's left wing to that of Grouchy's right wing... News had now reached him from Grouchy, that significant Prussian forces were arriving in the vicinity of Sombreffe in force. He was reluctant to give credit to such reports and decided to ride over to see for himself. Joining up with Vandamme's III Corps in front of St-Armand, the masses of Prussian troops he could see marching into range through his spyglass convinced him of the need to now turn his attentions upon the Prussians. Napoleon estimated that he could not be ready for battle until 2:00pm, for time was needed to bring up his troops and deploy them; namely Gerard's IV Corps into the front line and his Guard which would form the reserve. His battle plan which he began to formulate, envisaged a large part of Ney's command marching over from the crossroads at Quatre Bras which he assumed Ney would have taken and secured by mid afternoon. Coming from the west, Ney's forces would commence an enveloping assault on the flank and rear of the Prussians right flank, at which point Napoleon would unleash an irresistable attack by his Imperial Guard which would pierce a mortal wound through the centre of the Prussian line. Napoleon imagined a great and decisive victory, which might well decide the fate of the entire campaign, for with the defeated Prussian's reeling back along their lines of retreat to Namur and Liege, nothing could stop him from turning his full attention from Wellington's army who would be isolated from their Allies. ''"If Ney carries out his orders thoroughly, not a gun of the Prussian army will get away"' '''Napoleon declared Field-Marshal Blucher for his part, was determined to stand his ground and offer battle to the French, and shortly after noon he had three Corps in his hand on the intended field of battle. Ziethen's I Corps of 32,000 men formed his central battle line. It's centre was placed upon St-Armand with its left flank on Ligny itself, whist it's far flank hinged on Wagnele. Pirch's II Corps was deployed behind I Corps and Theilmanns III Corps would form up between Sombreffe and Mazy on the far left. Blucher also hoped to bring up Bulow's IV Corps, but as it turned out, this formation wads too far distant to be of any help. Sometime around 1:00pm as both armies were still deploying for battle, the Duke of Wellington himself arrived to visit Blucher. Wellington had arrived at Quatre Bras at 10:00am that morning, and after expressing his surprise to find the battlefield unduly quiet had rode over to see his ally. Wellington at once saw the exposed positions of the Prussian troops which invited easy targets for the French artillery. Perhaps he tactlessly pointed this out to his Allies, for Gneisenau, perhaps in a slight to Wellington's well known preference to concealing his men, retorted that ''"The Prussian soldiers prefer to have a plain view of their enemy" With some forebodings in respect of the Prussian deployments, Wellington set off back to Quatre Bras, but before he did so, he promised to aid Blucher by "Bringing over part of my army, providing I am not attacked myself." Nonetheless with 84,000 Prussians on the battlefield, which included 8,000 cavalry and 224 guns holding a seven mile front along the marshes of the Ligny brook, and holding all of ten vilages which dominated the approaches over all four of the main bridges, Blucher believed he was wellplaced to offer strong resistance to the French. External links * Category:Battles of the War of the Seventh Coalition Category:Battles of the Napoleonic Wars Category:Events of 1815